Further, possible future trends in internal temperature sensing are also discussed. These methods are analyzed in detail with their accuracy, implementation, measurement frequency, and the common challenges and benefits are discussed. More focus is given to the soft sensors due to the lack of an existing, in-depth review of these. The soft sensors include estimators/observers that use surface measurements and various models to estimate the internal temperature. The hard sensors include sensors that need to be inserted into the cell and other methods that use contact-less measuring techniques to infer the internal temperature. This paper reviews the most recent studies of various online internal temperature monitoring techniques under two main themes of hard sensors and soft sensors. However, the internal temperature is comparatively higher than the surface temperature due to heat generation within the cell and lower heat rejection compared to the surface therefore, accurate internal temperature monitoring methods are essential to improve our knowledge of battery safety and health. Currently, most commercial battery management systems rely on the surface temperature measurements of the cell. In-situ monitoring of the internal temperature of the cells is an important input for temperature control of battery management systems and various other related measurements of the battery, such as state-of-charge and state-of-health. The temperature of the lithium-ion battery is a crucial measurement during usage for better operation, safety and health of the battery. The second pulsing mode produced capacity values 7-8% higher than in the classical CC-CV protocol, and in charging times periods from 5-25% faster, without compromising the batteries' cycle life. PC and PV) to the total electrodes' capacity, and the thermal variations for each. Different voltage pulse widths and frequencies were tested, in order to study the maximum electrodes' capacity, the time required to reach that capacity, the contribution of each individual step (i.e. The second methodology keeps the same current pulse, however, after the limiting voltage was reached, the pulsing regime consisted in alternating between a maximum voltage value and a minimum, non-zero, constant current value. Firstly, a square current pulse is applied to the cell until the cut-off voltage is reached, followed by a pulsed square voltage protocol (PV). In this work, two new pulsed charging protocols were tested. Intercalation and de-intercalation of Li+ are accompanied by concentration gradients that are reflected by the rise in the cells' potentials that is required to maintain the constant current during the CC regime. Current flow during charging implies an equivalent ionic flow through the battery materials. Lithium-ion batteries are commonly charged following the constant current -constant voltage (CC-CV) protocol.
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